Abstract
Energy poverty, defined as the inability to fulfil adequate levels of domestic energy services, has been analysed in Japan previously. However, neither policy agendas nor official definitions of energy poverty have been established yet, resulting in the neglect of energy-poor households and other relevant aspects of this issue. This study is the first to examine the contextual factors of energy poverty in Japan, through the perspective of energy poverty vulnerabilities. The study uses a new multidimensional approach, covering the issues of affordability and accessibility to different forms of energy, as well as the effects of new technologies on the risk of energy poverty. The study develops several unexplored issues in previous literature, such as access to low-carbon energy as an issue in developed countries. The results highlight the role of location, infrastructure and household characteristics in influencing the risk of suffering energy poverty in Japan. The seasonality of energy poverty in Japan is also analysed, revealing higher rates of energy poverty in the northern regions during winter and in the southernmost region during summer. Finally, the impact of the ongoing energy transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy on energy poverty is discussed.
| Original language | English |
|---|---|
| Article number | 111006 |
| Journal | Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |
| Volume | 145 |
| DOIs | |
| Publication status | Published - Jul 2021 |
| Publication type | A1 Journal article-refereed |
Keywords
- Energy access
- Energy justice
- Energy poverty
- Energy transition
- Fuel poverty
- Japan
Publication forum classification
- Publication forum level 1
ASJC Scopus subject areas
- Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment
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In: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 145, 111006, 07.2021.
Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › Scientific › peer-review
TY - JOUR
T1 - Prevalence of energy poverty in Japan
T2 - A comprehensive analysis of energy poverty vulnerabilities
AU - Castaño-Rosa, Raúl
AU - Okushima, Shinichiro
N1 - Funding Information: As a study which applied a subjective EP measure in Japan, Chapman and Okushima [13] analysed the link between EP and an inclusive low-carbon energy transition. The results emphasised the need for an EP policy agenda that would recognise EP as an issue distinct from income poverty, highlighting the energy justice issues in Japan caused by the current low-carbon transition. Furthermore, the study noted that energy-poor households are not financially supported in the ongoing low-carbon transition, and hence are unable or unwilling to participate the transition. It concluded that EP policies should promote access to solar and low-carbon technologies among the most vulnerable groups to ensure an inclusive and just transition [31]. The research used an internet-based survey to collect households? evidence, but whose feature might be a limitation in the context of EP, as most vulnerable people do not generally use the internet.Chapman and Okushima [13] argued that the Japanese government should promote the use of solar panels, or solar energy itself, for the benefit of households in EP in order to engender an inclusive low-carbon energy transition. Solar home systems would help households in EP to reduce their energy expenditure, providing a reliable solution to include them in the low-carbon energy transition without health and environmental issues. In Japan, there is no public support for solar panels installation for energy-poor or low-income households, which leads to inadequate distribution of the large benefits produced by the use of solar panels through the Japanese benevolent feed-in tariff (FIT) system [13]10. Currently, households in EP are not considered in the FIT system (a representative low-carbon energy transition policy in Japan) and, consequently, they are excluded from the ongoing low-carbon energy transition.Quality: New technologies are not always properly designed to cover the required needs of the most vulnerable people. In Japan, it is known that ICT devices should be promoted among the elderly, low-income and female populations, who are considered as the ?have-nots? [80] and as being most vulnerable to EP. Similarly, Lee and Shepley [81] argued the need for further research when implementing new housing systems that aim to reduce energy consumption, specifically for vulnerable people. In Japan, the elderly are likely to retain outdated and energy-inefficient home appliances because of their familiarity, even if they can afford to buy new and efficient ones [37]. In another case, the use of a 24-h circulation bath equipment, considered non-requisite for single- or two-member elderly households, often leads them to have high energy consumption [75]. These are clear examples of new technologies that have been developed without considering the needs of the most vulnerable people. Thus, solutions and policies should no longer have a solely technical focus and rather need to promote social justice and inclusive and human-centric transition [82]. In this respect, Ramsden [83] argued the role of household-level face-to-face advice and support to mitigate the risk of EP among most vulnerable people by assisting them in reducing energy costs and improving energy efficiency.In terms of affordability, it is of vital importance to implement policies for the three main features of EP in developed countries: Low incomes, high energy prices, and inadequate levels of housing energy efficiency [1,4,38]. While such countermeasures have already been implemented in several European countries (for instance, the National Strategy against Energy Poverty was approved in Spain in 2019 [84]), Japan has implemented no such measures to explicitly address the EP issues, focusing solely on traditional welfare policies such as income support for monetary-poor households. In this respect, the EU's experiences could be considered as a model, mainly due to its history in addressing EP issues. Recently, the European Commission approved the European Green Deal mechanism, which emphasises the need to address the issue of EP in the context of a low-carbon energy transition, without leaving any one behind [85]. The member states were directed to implement effective measures for developing energy-efficiency renovation, which could help households reduce their energy bills and the risk of suffering EP [85]. In the Japanese context, where many households live in old and poor-quality dwellings with high levels of energy expenditure (see Fig. 5 for details), enhancing the energy efficiency of dwellings through retrofitting, or in some cases providing energy-efficient social housing for the energy poor, is considered some of the best policies for addressing EP, with the co-benefit of carbon mitigation, which has been supported by previous Japanese studies [10,11,32]. However, an important issue that has recently been exposed is the lack of feasible metrics to assess the effectiveness of such retrofit policies in the context of EP mitigation. Retrofitted dwellings with better energy-efficiency characteristics can negatively lead low-income households to be displaced (i.e. retrofitted housing in the renting sector may become less affordable due to price increases), possibly increasing social exclusion and jeopardising EP mitigation [86]. In this respect, a better understanding of the effectiveness of household retrofit policy is needed to avoid jeopardising EP mitigation and to help stimulate public and private investment [87] (see Section 4.2.1 for further details on the potential for energy-efficiency interventions).Similarly, a Korean case study showed the benefits of promoting solar systems for low-income people in social housing [81], highlighting the importance of supporting non-conventional renewable resources to avoid surcharges in electricity tariffs and, consequently, reducing the risk of EP [90].Additionally, the promotion of biomass energy (e.g. locally produced firewood) could also reduce (winter) EP in suitable areas. In Japan, some households, specifically living around mountainous areas, use woodstoves for winter heating. However, its high-cost installation and the efforts required for day-to-day management are major bottlenecks in ensuring their widespread use.12 Thus, the promotion of woodstoves (i.e. by supporting households in adopting high-efficiency and easy-to-maintain woodstoves and chimneys) may become a valuable practice for some local governments to address (winter) EP, adding to the potential benefits of carbon mitigation and forest conservation.Finally, the strategy proposed in Fig. 10 is not only concerned with promoting the accessibility of most vulnerable people to solar panels but also the associated reduction of energy costs for the households, leading to their empowerment and a better quality of life. The same process can be applied to the promotion of biomass energy and energy-efficiency measures. Furthermore, the government budget saved, mainly due to the reduction of costs in medical care, can also be used to promote an inclusive low-carbon energy transition by providing financial support to most vulnerable households.The study reveals a higher EP prevalence in the northern regions during winter and in the southernmost region of Okinawa during summer. Additionally, the results highlight location, infrastructure availability, area density and household socioeconomic characteristics as being relevant factors that influence the risk of EP in Japan. Energy infrastructure inequalities have traditionally been overlooked as a possible cause of EP and/or energy deprivation in Japan. Furthermore, it has been highlighted that the use of new technologies may not always improve people's quality of life and, consequently, may not reduce the risk of EP, specifically when considering related factors, such as efficiency (the way in which people use new and low-carbon [energy-saving] housing systems), cost (the ability of people to afford new and low-carbon [energy-saving] housing systems), and quality (the effectiveness of new and low-carbon [energy-saving] housing systems in reducing the risk of EP). Finally, this study suggests that, based on the concept of circular economy, the government should promote vulnerable households' access to renewable energy systems (specifically solar power and biomass), distributing the benefit of renewable-energy deployment more evenly and fairly. This would lead to a reduction in EP and, consequently, might lead to a reduction in medical care costs and an increase in public financial support to assist most vulnerable people (as graphically shown in Fig. 10), as well as a participation increase of vulnerable groups in the ongoing low-carbon transition process (inclusiveness).This research was supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (JSPSKAKENHI) [Grant No. JP17K00679]. Funding Information: This research was supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (JSPSKAKENHI) [Grant No. JP17K00679 ]. Publisher Copyright: © 2021 The Author(s)
PY - 2021/7
Y1 - 2021/7
N2 - Energy poverty, defined as the inability to fulfil adequate levels of domestic energy services, has been analysed in Japan previously. However, neither policy agendas nor official definitions of energy poverty have been established yet, resulting in the neglect of energy-poor households and other relevant aspects of this issue. This study is the first to examine the contextual factors of energy poverty in Japan, through the perspective of energy poverty vulnerabilities. The study uses a new multidimensional approach, covering the issues of affordability and accessibility to different forms of energy, as well as the effects of new technologies on the risk of energy poverty. The study develops several unexplored issues in previous literature, such as access to low-carbon energy as an issue in developed countries. The results highlight the role of location, infrastructure and household characteristics in influencing the risk of suffering energy poverty in Japan. The seasonality of energy poverty in Japan is also analysed, revealing higher rates of energy poverty in the northern regions during winter and in the southernmost region during summer. Finally, the impact of the ongoing energy transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy on energy poverty is discussed.
AB - Energy poverty, defined as the inability to fulfil adequate levels of domestic energy services, has been analysed in Japan previously. However, neither policy agendas nor official definitions of energy poverty have been established yet, resulting in the neglect of energy-poor households and other relevant aspects of this issue. This study is the first to examine the contextual factors of energy poverty in Japan, through the perspective of energy poverty vulnerabilities. The study uses a new multidimensional approach, covering the issues of affordability and accessibility to different forms of energy, as well as the effects of new technologies on the risk of energy poverty. The study develops several unexplored issues in previous literature, such as access to low-carbon energy as an issue in developed countries. The results highlight the role of location, infrastructure and household characteristics in influencing the risk of suffering energy poverty in Japan. The seasonality of energy poverty in Japan is also analysed, revealing higher rates of energy poverty in the northern regions during winter and in the southernmost region during summer. Finally, the impact of the ongoing energy transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy on energy poverty is discussed.
KW - Energy access
KW - Energy justice
KW - Energy poverty
KW - Energy transition
KW - Fuel poverty
KW - Japan
U2 - 10.1016/j.rser.2021.111006
DO - 10.1016/j.rser.2021.111006
M3 - Article
AN - SCOPUS:85104066696
SN - 1364-0321
VL - 145
JO - Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
JF - Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
M1 - 111006
ER -