Emotion Regulation: From social and cognitive underpinnings to everyday dynamics

Background: Emotion regulation (ER) is a dynamic process in which individuals strive to influence their emotions. Due to its pivotal role in wellbeing, much research interest has been targeted to the social and cognitive foundations of ER with a special focus on parenting styles, effortful control, and attachment processes. This research suggests that, from infancy to adolescence, children adapt ER to their parents' parenting style. Moreover, individuals' effortful control abilities for activation, attention, and inhibition may be prerequisites for various goal-oriented ER processes. Finally, individuals' attachment processes may direct their use of ER strategies and experiences of emotions. However, there are limitations in research on the social and cognitive underpinnings of ER. First, the developmental stage- specific role of parenting styles in children’s ER remains uncharted, as most studies have restricted their focus to only one developmental stage. Second, research on the social and cognitive underpinnings of ER has conceptualized ER predominantly as a static, trait-like characteristic. Yet, ER is a dynamic, state-like process, continuously interacting and evolving with emotions. As such, a more comprehensive understanding of the social and cognitive factors in ER requires an examination of their roles in the long-term development of ER as well as its short-term dynamics.

Objectives: This dissertation sought insights into whether and how various social and cognitive factors contribute to both long-term development and short-term dynamics of ER. Study I tested the effects of parents’ autonomy and intimacy in relation to their child at specific developmental stages, namely infancy, middle childhood, and late adolescence, on adolescents' ER patterns (i.e., reappraisal, suppression, and rumination). Study II modeled the links of recalled parenting experiences (i.e., warmth, rejection, and overcontrol) with adult ER selection and effectiveness of ER implementation and examined the mediating role of effortful control for these links. Study III delved into the dynamics between state attachment and ER strategies and the role of trait attachment in ER strategies. Finally, Study IV tested the links of trait attachment with dynamic features of daily negative and positive emotions, including baseline level, variability, inertia, and differentiation.

Methods: Studies I and IV were part of the Miracles of Development research project, and Studies II–IV were part of the Daily Emotions research project. In Study I, the sample comprised 885 families, who were tracked longitudinally from the children’s first year through ages 7 to 8 and then at 17 to 19 years. Maternal and paternal autonomy and intimacy in relation their child were assessed with self-reports and partner reports at each measurement point. Moreover, adolescents' ER patterns were assessed using self-reported questionnaires. In Studies II–IV, an ecological momentary assessment (EMA) sample of the Daily Emotions project comprised 122 adults (Mage = 26.43 years, 88.5% women). Study IV additionally employed an EMA subsample from the young adults of the Miracles of Development project (Mage = 20.98 years; 66.9% women). Before undertaking the EMA phases, participants' trait attachment, recalled parenting experiences, and effortful control were assessed using self-reported questionnaires. In the EMA phases, participants reported their ER strategies, emotions, and state attachment 7 (Daily Emotions) or 10 (Miracles of Development) times a day over 7 days.

Results: Study I found no evidence regarding the stage-specific effects of parenting styles in infancy, middle childhood, or late adolescence on adolescents' ER patterns. The results were consistent across self- and partner reports and the parenting style dimensions of autonomy and intimacy. Study II found that recalled parental warmth predicted less suppression and rumination, whereas recalled overcontrol predicted greater suppression and reappraisal. However, recalled parenting experiences did not predict the effectiveness of ER implementation, and effortful control did not predict ER selection or implementation. Study III revealed a self-sustaining cycle between low state attachment security and rumination that was attenuated by reappraisal. Rumination and suppression also predicted increased insecure states, and reappraisal predicted increased secure and insecure states. Moreover, trait attachment anxiety (but not avoidance) predicted greater rumination, suppression, and reappraisal. Finally, Study IV showed trait attachment anxiety to predict a higher baseline level of negative emotions and a lower baseline level of positive emotions, and trait attachment avoidance to predict a lower baseline level of positive emotions.

Conclusions: The findings of this dissertation underscore that both trait- and state- like attachment processes can be critical proximate mechanisms shaping ER dynamics, while ER can also contribute to state attachment dynamics. Moreover, childhood experiences and memories with one's parents may guide adult ER selection rather than implementation, and the mechanisms behind these links may operate largely independently of effortful control. Finally, ER may show notable developmental plasticity from infancy to late adolescence. Overall, this dissertation illuminates the understanding of ER as a dynamic, multifaceted process intertwined with beliefs, experiences, and memories regarding our most intimate relationships.